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Copyright © 2014 by David Keil. All rights reserved. No portion of this book, except for brief reviews,
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the written permission of the publisher. For
information, contact Lotus Publishing.

Contents

First published in 2014 by
Lotus Publishing
Apple Tree Cottage, Inlands Road, Nutbourne, Chichester, PO18 8RJ

Anatomical Illustrations Amanda Williams
Photographs Jose Caban
Text Design Wendy Craig
Cover Design Paula Morrison
Printed and Bound in the UK by Bell & Bain Limited

MEDICAL DISCLAIMER: The following information is intended for general information purposes only.
Individuals should always see their health care provider before administering any suggestions made in
this book. Any application of the material set forth in the following pages is at the reader’s discretion and
is his or her sole responsibility.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 905367 46 7

Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Foreword …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7

Part 1: Functional Anatomy …………………………………………………………………………………….. 11

Chapter 1: The Basics of Functional Anatomy ……………………………………………………….. 19

Chapter 2: The Foot and Ankle ……………………………………………………………………………… 53

Chapter 3: The Knee ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 75

Chapter 4: The Hip Joint ……………………………………………………………………………………… 103

Chapter 5: The Pelvis …………………………………………………………………………………………… 137

Chapter 6: The Spine …………………………………………………………………………………………… 165

Chapter 7: Comparing the Upper and Lower Extremities ……………………………………. 199

Chapter 8: Hand, Wrist, and Elbow ……………………………………………………………………… 223

Part 2: Anatomical Patterns in Asana ……………………………………………………………………. 239

Chapter 9: Anatomical Patterns in Forward Bends ……………………………………………… 247

Chapter 10: Anatomical Patterns in External Hip Rotation ………………………………….. 273

Chapter 11: Anatomical Patterns in Twists ………………………………………………………………..

Chapter 12: Anatomical Patterns in Arm Balances …………………………………………………….

Chapter 13: Anatomical Patterns in Backbends …………………………………………………………

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Index ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6

Functional Anatomy of Yoga: A Guide for Practitioners and Teachers

As with other anatomy texts, David references body parts with anatomical words and
descriptions; however, he goes further. Using his own experience with yoga asana, putting
his own body into the many gravity-defying structures, he creates an understanding for
you, the reader, in everyday language. This book is a bridge across the gap between the
professional academic and the self-exploring yoga student. You, too, will gain a personal
understanding and insight by taking David’s gems of wisdom to your yoga mat, and
through your own personal practical exploration, will connect all separated parts into
one whole functioning and breathing body, alive steady in asana – sthira/sukha.

It is an honor and a pleasure to write a foreword to this exploratory journey into the
functioning of the physical body. When I read through David’s draft, I could hear his
voice, the complexity yet simplicity of the presentation. It felt as though I was present
in one of his workshops, eager to be lead by David through the practical anatomical
exercise on the yoga mat. This book is a journey of deep exploration that will enhance
each individual’s understanding of what it really means to inhabit a body that not only
stands in anatomical neutral, samasthitih, but also moves with the breath to create asana.
A body that “shape shifts” towards the postural understanding of our bodies, tension
free, relaxed, still, and steady—gracefully moving in space, mastering the relationship
of posture, breath, and gravity.

—Enjoy

John Scott

Introduction

My idea for this book grew as I traveled around the world teaching anatomy to
prospective yoga teachers. Usually I serve as an adjunct faculty in a teacher training
program, offering the minimum amount of anatomy training required to certify new
teachers. Twelve hours is barely an introduction to this wonderfully complicated body
of ours. My hope is that this book offers a more complete exploration of the human
body in a context that is both accessible and exciting.

As I teach, I sometimes question whether those on the sincere path of a yogi really need
to know anatomy. By this I mean, if you’re practicing yoga for the ultimate intention of
self-knowledge and not just jumping around on a mat, how much anatomy do you really
need to know? The truth is if we adhere to the definition of yoga offered in Patanjali’s
sutras, yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind. It is detaching from all of the
voices (and their stories) in our head long enough to realize our true self.

So what does this have to do with anatomy? Well, honestly, not much. Most of us do not
have the wherewithal to simply sit down, quiet our mind, and enter into a state of yoga.
So what are we to do? What is our vehicle for accessing this state? How do we find
our way there? The answer is simple: through our very own research laboratory—the
body.

Hatha Yoga was born to accommodate those of us who can’t just sit down and quiet
our mind. Asana (a.k.a., jumping around on our mat) is the vehicle with which we begin
to purify the body (annamayakosha). The asanas touch us on all levels. At the most basic
level, they increase our flexibility and strength. More subtly, they purify our tissues,
and even more subtly, they affect the energetic system that supports and sustains our
tissues. Finally, when all the moving and jumping is done, the asanas bring us to a state
where we might sit comfortably and quietly without our mind being distracted by our
body. This “jumping around” on the mat is also our vehicle for studying the body in a
deep and kinesthetic way. This is where anatomy intersects asana.

If you have practiced asana consistently for 10 years or more for at least one hour each
day, it is certain that you know the workings of your body quite well. You may not have
the technical anatomical names or understandings, but your kinesthetic knowledge is a
very real and powerful way to know the body. This is knowledge that cannot be learned
from a book.

Unfortunately, many people today are teaching yoga before they have practiced for
even one year. In general, if you haven’t done the exploration in your own body, it
will be harder to lead someone through an exploration of theirs. But every teacher and
student must start somewhere. For those of you who have not dedicated the time to

8

Functional Anatomy of Yoga: A Guide for Practitioners and Teachers

Introduction

9

exploring your body deeply on a daily basis, it is crucial for you to understand anatomy
and the wide variety of differences in individual anatomy. Keep in mind, however, that
at some point you must do the self-inquiry.

If you are reading this book to learn what your students should or shouldn’t do with
this or that condition or pain, the answer is, “There is no answer.” Oh yes, I am serious.
If you think these conditions can be boiled down, categorized, systematized, and then
spat back, you will never be a great teacher. I assume that each teacher wants to be the
best they can be, and for that, you need to practice and study for years. You need to
think, inquire, and be open to possibilities!

You might have gathered that the information in this book is not the final answer to
any particular situation or problem. You’re right: it isn’t. But you will find explanations
that may fit what you observe in class. I try to provide these in a way that helps you
understand the bigger picture that always goes along with the little picture expressing
itself in your class. I provide broad anatomical explanations that might be applied to
any individual in your class.

After reading this book, you will be filled with information that inspires you to think
critically. You will have the tools to hypothesize what’s going on in a student’s (or in
your own) body and what to do about it. I want you to be a thinker. Question everything
you read and hear (including what I say), not for the sake of questioning, but for a
deeper comprehension. And finally, I want you to understand what you will learn by
practicing.

In teaching anatomy, I seek to strike a balance between simplicity and honoring the
complexity of the human body. Most of the questions I receive from students are the
“why and what” questions: “Why can’t I do this asana?” “What is restricting me in this
pose?” “What do you do if you have knee pain?” “What poses should I avoid with this
condition?” These are practical questions.

The aim of this book is to be as practical as possible. At the same time, I offer many
possibilities and perspectives. I don’t do this to confuse you, but to keep you aware
of the myriad possibilities; filtering through many possibilities is the reality of a yoga
teacher. When I make suggestions to my students about their problems, conditions, and
restrictions, I offer a working hypothesis. In other words, I make an educated guess
at what may be causing the concern and what might help to alleviate or improve the
situation. I have to be willing to change my hypothesis based on the student’s feedback
or what I observe the student doing as we move forward.

If there is an inherent problem with studying anatomy, it is that we divide the body
into pieces and parts in order to talk about it. There is no other way I can think of to
approach the information. The downside of this is that we then think of the body as
being distinct parts that are somehow assembled together.

We need to remember that our body started its formation with yoga. The literal
translation of the word is “yoking” or “joining.” It is when the sperm meets the egg that
the first physical yoking begins in our own body. From this point, a single cell is formed.
From that single cell, every bone, muscle, organ, piece, and part has formed out of cell
division. The body did not name its own parts. That’s something we humans have
done. So, as the body functions as a whole (rather than as an assembly of individual
parts), we need to approach it as a whole.

There is a similar issue in approaching yoga from an anatomical perspective. While it
is hoped that any serious student will study all of yoga’s eight limbs, because this is
an anatomy book, we deal exclusively with only one limb—asana. Most yoga students
today enter the path of yoga via asana. This is neither good nor bad. Asana is a great
way to engage with the whole of yoga. Yoga does not care how we interact with it. That
we are interacting with it on any level suggests it will lead us through the whole of the
practice over time.

As practitioners, it is important that we do not get stuck in asana. It’s definitely possible.
There is a lifetime of work to do in fully understanding and experiencing these postures,
and studying anatomy can add to this natural emphasis on the physical. It is not my
intention to get you stuck in your thinking mind or your body. As you read, I hope you
will take this information and experience it for yourself, thereby merging your intellect
with your physicality.

As you read, allow your understanding of what anatomy means to expand. Begin to
explore your body as an integrated whole. As you practice, experience asanas not as
individual postures but as elements that are related to one another in the context of a
greater whole.

In summary, this book will encourage you to explore your understanding of anatomy
via the personal laboratory that is your own body. As a result, you will become a more
mindful practitioner and a better teacher. If I do my job well, you will be inspired to
continue your study of anatomy, your practice, and yourself well beyond the pages of
this book.

Namasté, David Keil

Converging Histories

From the moment of our birth, our bodies are affected by the lives we live. There is a
convergence of information and energy that comes together inside of us. Circumstances,
decisions, accidents, and intentions all influence who we are. They form us as certainly
as we were physically formed in our mother’s womb. It is impossible to separate a
person from their life experiences.

I call these life experiences or influences “Converging Histories.” These histories
comprise a wide array of informational energies that are absorbed by our system. Every
event in our life, from watching a movie to riding a bicycle or practicing yoga, has
an influence on our being. All of these events have a certain energetic, physical, and
emotional quality that impact and become part of our physical body.

Our converging histories make us exactly who we are in this moment. Some of these
histories happened to us; we had no conscious control over them. Some of them we
chose; we consciously added them to our life experiences. Every moment that we live,
we choose experiences, activities, and relationships that become part of our own sea of
converging histories. They become part of us.

The first and most basic of these histories is common to us all. It is the history of human
evolution. What has human evolution done to our bodies? Imagine for a moment
that it is billions of years ago and we are quadrupeds. Our center of gravity as four-
legged creatures is in a different place. Our feet and hands are also different. Thus
when we evolve to bipedalism, our bodies have to change. As two-legged creatures, the
relationship of muscle to bone must shift.

As two-legged creatures, walking is our main mode of transportation. Therefore, we
have developed strong lower bodies designed to propel us forward. Along with this
development, our upper half has evolved as well. We are quite good at interacting with
things in front of us. We grab, pull, and manipulate the tangible world as perceived by
our eyes, nose, and mouth. Due to the incredible mobility of our hands, we’re better
able to protect our front and our more vulnerable underside.

Our fantastic “new” appendages have made using tools and playing the piano possible.
And our hands have helped further the development of our brain. Yes, our ability to pick
things up, manipulate objects, and create new things with our hands has fed our brain
massive amounts of information, which has in turn led to the human consciousness and
intelligence we now know. Our upper limbs are also useful in their coordination with
the lower half. We use our arms to help move the body while running and to maintain
balance in difficult situations. (Can anyone say Utthita Hasta Padangusthasana?)

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Part 1: Functional Anatomy

Converging Histories

15

Our genetic history is another piece of our converging histories. From the vast pool of
possibilities, we have been born to two parents, each with their own genetic make-up.
Out of this genetic mixing pot come our eye color, foot size, and shape of the arches in
the feet (or lack thereof). Our height and weight predispositions, the length of our torso
relative to our arms, and so on, also come out of the mix. On a physiological level, our
parental genetic history predisposes us to certain diseases or illnesses. The implications
of genetic history are far-reaching.

Somewhat related to genetics is the history I refer to as “Learned Parental Behavior.”
This is a scary one for some of us. It can be distressing to wake up one morning and
realize that we are turning into our parents, which we swore we would never do. It’s
hard to escape the powerful imprints left by our parents during the formative years.

On a physical level, we learn how to walk by watching and mirroring the way our parents
walk. We talk, make expressions, and have similar body language as our parents. This is
only natural. Our parents are the first place we saw any of these things happening.

In addition, we adopt ways of thinking, ways of being, and patterns of thought from the
input and influence of our parents. Even our mental attitudes derive in part from our
learned parental history. The implications are deep. Perhaps this is one way to explain
why millions of people are in therapy trying to eradicate the “negative” influence of
their parents. In no way should we pass judgment on Mom and Dad. They did the
best they could. It is our work to recognize the traits and behaviors that stem from our
learned parental history and then determine which to maintain and which to discard.

The fourth and fifth converging histories I’ve identified are physical ones. Our “Activities
History” comprises all the physical activities we have learned over the years. Perhaps
we played sports such as baseball, football, or soccer. Or maybe we spent time dancing,
horseback riding, or practicing martial arts. All of these activities create patterns of
movement in our bodies and help forge relationships between the brain, the senses, and
our motor skills. The degree of refinement we develop in our activities and how long
we participate in them helps to determine the strength of the patterns developed.

I was exposed to yoga very early in life by my pre-school teacher, Mrs. Elphenbein. We
did yoga a few times a week on our little rugs. I don’t fully know the degree to which this
impacted my body or mind. But I have to believe these formative experiences played a
role in my later desire to study Tai Chi Chuan and yoga.

I also did judo for a short time and played baseball for a number of years. I played
catcher, which definitely left a physical imprint on me. I had to squat for long periods of
time, which lengthened or built certain muscles in my lower body and likely impacted

my posture. Some, like me, have done many activities in their lives while others have
participated in just a few. Either way, they all have an influence on how our body
develops and the patterns that we acquire.

We also need to consider our “Injury History.” Sometimes our injuries are the result of
our activities and sports. Sometimes they are the result of accidents, such as falling out
of a tree and breaking an arm, stepping off a curb and twisting an ankle, or even getting
hit by a car. No matter the cause, all injuries have an influence on our patterns, and
we might not be aware of what these are. Perhaps the position of our sacrum or pelvis
is changed in a fall. Or maybe the healing of a broken bone causes one leg to become
slightly longer. We must become aware of the far-reaching effects of our injury history
as we come to know and understand our body.

When I was nine years old I broke my femur (thigh bone). I was playing soccer at the
time. I kicked a soccer ball at the exact same moment that my neighbor (a boy at least
twice my size) kicked the ball in the opposite direction. The impact of our simultaneous
kicks completely broke my femur. Is it any wonder that this leg is a bit twisted, a bit
longer, and definitely harder to get behind my head? Even the food we ate as children
or the amount of beer we drank in college can influence our bodies and what they are
capable of. Thus we also have a “Nutritional History” that influences who we are right
now.

Finally we have what is perhaps a larger and more profound history that can impact
who we are, what injuries we have had, and how our body moves. It influences the very
essence of our being. I call this our “Spiritual History.” Within this history are some
very large questions about who we are, what we believe, and how we live. Our spiritual
beliefs not only inform our inner well-being, but can impact our physical body as well.

Since we are talking about yoga, we should also consider whether there is an influence
from past lives. What about personal karma or samskaras and their effect on our physical
body? Is it possible we did yoga in a past life? If so, how is it influencing our practice
of asana today?

There is just one more history worth mentioning: our “Mental/Emotional History.”
Our emotional history plays a part in shaping how we view the world and ourselves.
These influences can come from our parents, embarrassing or proud moments, and
even our injuries. As a teacher, I see this in students all the time. By watching the way
they approach their practice or deal with their aches and pains, I can tell a lot about their
history. An injury that happened years ago can keep a student from even trying a given
posture.

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Part 1: Functional Anatomy

Converging Histories

17

it is All one

Now that you have a taste for how hard it really is to see the whole person, perhaps
you can sense the difficulty in teaching anatomy in a way that emphasizes how well-
integrated the body actually is. As it is easy to lapse into our old mindset of seeing the
body without taking into account the person alongside their life experiences, it is quite
natural to disregard the interconnection of all of our parts. We tend to think of our sore
shoulder, tight hip, or flexible spine as separate issues with little to no correlation. And
when taking a subject as broad and complex as anatomy, it is helpful (and perhaps
necessary) to divide it into pieces for easier comprehension. This certainly has value.
The problem arises if we forget to put these pieces back together or don’t make an effort
to understand how they interrelate to create the whole.

It is common for us to think of a muscle as one piece, a bone as another piece, and
connective tissue as yet another piece of the body. And it doesn’t help our cause that we
can actually replace a knee, hip, or shoulder. The miracle of modern medicine reinforces
this idea of our being distinct pieces—and replaceable pieces at that! Although it is
true that we can replace certain broken parts, this is not the way we were created,
manufactured in a plant using nuts and bolts. Far from it.

Our beginnings and, therefore, the beginning of all of our “parts” is much more magical
and integrated than that. If we start from the very beginning, there were two parts: one
sperm and one egg. That miraculous act of fertilization initiated the amazing process
of formation. We developed from that point on. One cell split into two cells, which
split into four cells, which split into eight, and so on. This is our true beginning, one
cell dividing into many until those cells began to specialize and eventually comprise
all of our parts. Although the crux of my message is the integration of the body, that
information has to be given in pieces. However, we must always step back and look at
the individual part in relationship to everything that surrounds it.

For example, I met a student who had an injury to his hip joint about 15 years before
I met him. Pins were placed inside temporarily to keep the cartilage against the end
of the bone so that it could heal. From that point on, he had assumed there was some
boney deformation that prevented him from adducting his hip joint or bringing his
femur to his chest.

His approach to practice was one of caution (a good thing). By the time I met him he
had basically given up on a regular practice because it was causing more trouble than
good, and most teachers were baffled by the condition of his hip. I could see how strong
the beliefs were, the connection to the old injury, and the assumptions that were turned
into fact. A number of postures were just not going to happen with all of these beliefs
and stories in place.

To be honest, I didn’t know what the truth was, but neither did the student. With three
days of practice and a lot of trust, we got his femur to his chest and his hip joint did
adduct. Slowly but surely, the beliefs and emotions stored within the body were being
released —often showing up in the form of hopeful and joyful tears; disbelief and
recognition of stories that were wrong and as stuck as the hip itself were dissolving.

It doesn’t matter how you divide or categorize the “histories”; I could have done it
differently. What is important is that you see how each one of them ultimately ties
together to create our state of being in any given moment.

When we look at a student, we are seeing the product of these converging histories.
Beginning to observe what shows up (inside and out) in the moment is the best way to
see someone. Learning to see beyond the body is part of learning to teach yoga. As we
become able to see beyond the body, we become better able to see our students as they
are in the moment. But we need to keep in mind that sometimes (perhaps in a large class
situation) individuality is lost and everyone is given the same instruction for the same
pose, despite their individual differences.

So, how do we treat each student as an individual? Each pose has its basic principles
and guidelines. For instance, everyone should rotate their thigh outward or inward and
engage this or that in a given pose, right? How do we layer these fundamentals with our
consideration of who a particular student is right now, in this moment? And how can
we move our students from where they are now to where we think they should be in a
way that suits them? How many of these histories are you able to see when you watch
your students practice? Should students do (or not do) certain postures on the basis
of their personal histories? How do these histories fit into a student’s development in
the practice of asana as well as the larger picture of yoga? These are just a few things to
consider. Let’s leave it at this: It is enough that you begin to look for these pieces of the
puzzle in your students. It is enough that you try to see beyond the body.

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Part 1: Functional Anatomy

The iLioTiBiAL BAnd

The IT band or tract (ITB or ITT) is a piece of fascia on the outer part of the thigh. Its
name describes its attachments. At the top it attaches to the ilium (bone of the pelvis)
and below to the tibia in the foreleg. It attaches to the ilium via a muscle called the
tensor fascia latae (TFL). If we look at the name of the muscle closely, it is the tensor of
the lateral fascia which is exactly what the ITB is, the lateral fascia.

Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus

Biceps femoris
(long head)
Biceps femoris
(short head)

Tensor
fasciae latae
rectus
femoris
iliotibial band
Vastus
lateralis

Figure 3.22: The iliotibial band.

In addition to attaching at the ilium via the TFL, the ITB also attaches to the gluteus
maximus and gluteus medius. The connective tissue runs down the outer part of the
leg, over the lateral quadriceps (vastus lateralis), and attaches to the lateral part of the
tibia as it crosses the knee joint.

The ITB is normally considered to be a stabilizer of the knee, especially during walking
and running. With overuse, such as sometimes seen in runners, cyclists, and other sports
enthusiasts, the ITB can adhere fascially to the lateral quadriceps beneath it. This can
lead to a number of tensional isues that can affect hip and knee function. Avid runners
and cyclists actually need an ITB that is taut to support the knee during those activities.
If we recognize that someone has an ITB that is too tight, simply stretching it out with
yoga postures may lead to trouble in other activities. This doesn’t mean that we want a
super tight ITB either. It’s about balance and what activities you want to do. A loose ITB

The Knee

97

can cause instability while running. A tight ITB can cause pain at the knee in postures
like Lotus. Hips that are tight from either running or cycling are often the exact opposite
of what we want them to be like in order to do Lotus Pose.

inTeGrATinG AnATomy inTo your PrAcTice

We’re all familiar with the advice to bend our knees when stooping down to pick up
a heavy box. We do this to help distribute the weight from the lower back into the
legs. This same concept can be used in our transition in and out of standing postures.
Straight-legged standing postures themselves do not call for bending the knees, but in
a standing forward bend, Triangle Pose, or any other straight-legged standing pose for
that matter, bending the knees distributes the weight in the legs.

Play with entering and exiting a number of standing poses with the legs straight and
then with the knees bent. Compare the difference. Bending the knees to transition
between postures can be extremely helpful to students with SI, lower back, or knee
problems. Once in the final pose, however, you should at the very least be trying to
straighten the knees.

Your knees may be indicative of what is happening at the joints and structures that
surround them. Take a look at your knees in a simple Downward Facing Dog and see
where they point. Bend them slightly, and see if they point straight forward, inwards, or
outwards. Better yet, lift your toes and see if this has any effect on your knees. Is there
a connection between the feet and the knees?

Try this one. Step into a simple Triangle Pose, and before your reach out to move into
the posture, notice where your knee tends to point. Chances are it points inwards. If you
bend the knee slightly, you’ll notice that it unlocks the hip and brings the knee to point
straight forward over the foot.

Pain in your Knee during Lotus?

At a workshop, when I ask who has knee pain, approximately 80 percent of those
who complain about knee pain in a Lotus type of posture (where the leg is flexed and
rotated) say they experience pain on the inside (medial) of the knee. Approximately 10
to 15 percent complain about pain on the outside (lateral) of the knee. The rest usually
complain about pain through the centerline of their knee or around the kneecap. All
three areas express stress in the knee in different ways.

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The Knee

99

Pain on the inside of the knee is the most common knee pain associated with the leg
being in Half- or Full-Lotus Pose. Using statistics from my own personal observations,
I’ve come up with a working hypothesis: the most common cause of pain on the medial
knee is compression of the medial meniscus. Please note that I am not suggesting that
all pain on the inside of the knee is coming from the medial meniscus. Nor am I saying
that pain on the inside of your knee during Half- or Full Lotus means you have already
torn your meniscus. You may simply be irritating it. There are other structures in this
area that can get inflamed or irritated and cause pain on the i