Word formation – Oxford University Press

 

 

Word formation

1 Compounds

A Compound nouns

A compound noun can be formed by joining two nouns together,
e.g. hand + bag = handbag.
a handbag
the weekend
We stress the first part of the word: a ‘handbag.

football a guidebook my bedroom

There is little difference between a compound noun and two separate nouns
used one after the other, e.g. a phone bill. Some combinations can be written
either as a compound or as two separate nouns, e.g. guidebook or guide book.

Some compound nouns are formed from an adjective + noun or from a
verb + noun.
a greenhouse a blackboard

some workmen a searchlight

NOTE
Compare these phrases.

Compound noun: a ‘hotplate (= a place on a cooker where you heat food)
Adjective + noun: a hot ‘plate (= a plate which is hot)

B Gerund + noun

the dining-room (= the room for dining in)

We can use a gerund to classify a noun, to say what type it is or what its
purpose is.

a washing-machine (= a machine that washes clothes)
a sailing-ship some writing-paper a swimming-pool

We often use a hyphen after the gerund. We stress the gerund, e.g. the
‘dining-room.

the booking office

NOTE
Compare a gerund and a participle.

Gerund: a ‘sleeping-pill (= a pill that helps you to sleep)
Participle: a sleeping ‘child (= a child who is sleeping)

C Noun + gerund

We can form a compound with a noun + gerund.
Taxi-driving was what I ended up doing.
We had three days of sightseeing.
Coin-collecting is an interesting hobby.
We stress the noun, e.g. ‘coin collecting.

The noun in this pattern is singular, e.g coin-collecting. But after a gerund the noun
can be either singular or plural depending on the meaning.

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Driving a taxi was what I ended up doing.
Collecting coins is an interesting hobby.

D Compound modifiers

We can use a number + noun to modify another noun.
a three-day visit a sixty-mile journey a car with four-wheel drive
The noun in this pattern is usually singular, e.g. a three-day visit.

The modifier can also be a number + noun + adjective.
a three-day-old baby a hundred-metre-long queue

We can also form compounds with participles.
a road-widening scheme a hard-boiled egg

2 Prefixes

A A prefix is something that we can put at the beginning of a word to change the

meaning. Compare these two sentences.
I calculated the amount I would need.
I miscalculated the amount I would need.
(= I wrongly calculated the amount I would need.)
Here the prefix mis- (= wrongly) changes the meaning.

B Here are some prefixes and some examples of words we can form with them.

anti-nuclear protestors, anti-social behaviour
an autobiography, auto-suggestion
co-exist, a co-production, my co-driver
his ex-wife, an ex-footballer
an inter-city train, an international phone call
a minibus, a minicab

anti- (= against)
auto- (= self )
co- (= together)
ex- (= previously)
inter- (= between)
mini- (= small)
mis- (= badly/wrongly) misuse, misbehave, miscount, a misprint
mono- (= one)
multi- (= many)
out- (= more/better)

over- (= too much)
post- (= after)
pre- (= before)
pro- (= in favour of )
re- (= again)
semi- (= half )
sub- (= under/less)

super- (= big/more)

a monorail, monolingual, speak in a monotone
a multinational company, a multi-storey car park
outnumber the opposition, outplayed their
opponents
overweight, an overgrown garden, ill from overwork
the post-war years, a post-dated cheque
the pre-war years, preheat an oven
pro-government forces, pro-European policies
re-write a letter, remarry, the resale value of the car
semi-precious stones, reach the semi-final
the subway, subnormal intelligence, sub-zero
temperatures
a superstar, a superhuman effort, a supersonic
aircraft

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trans- (= across)
under- (= too little)

a transatlantic flight, a heart transplant operation
undercooked food, an underused resource,
underpopulation

NOTE
Out- and under- can have a literal meaning: underwear, the Underground, underline a word; an
outbuilding, an outdoor pool, the outskirts of the town.

C There are some negative prefixes meaning ‘not’.

un-

in-

feeling unhappy, an unfair decision, unhealthy conditions,
high unemployment, unplug a machine, unpack a suitcase
an independent state, an inoffensive remark, the invisible
man, an incurable disease, a terrible injustice
an illegal act, an illogical argument

ir- (+ r)
dis-

il- (+ l)
im- (+ b/m/p) an imbalance, an immoral act, immature behaviour,
an impossible situation, an impractical dreamer, wait
impatiently
an irrational fear, an irresponsible attitude
a dishonest statement, a violent disagreement, disappearing
out of the door, a dislike of flying
non-alcoholic drinks, non-stop entertainment,
a non-smoking area
defrost a fridge, the depopulation of the countryside,
the decentralization of government

non-

de-

We do not use in- before b, l, m, p, or r. We use il-, im-, and ir- instead.

3 Suffixes

A Introduction

A suffix comes at the end of a word. For example, we can add the suffix –ness
to the adjective kind to form the noun kindness. Compare these two
sentences.
We won’t forget how kind you’ve been.
We won’t forget your kindness.
Here the use of the suffix to form a noun makes the sentence shorter
and neater.

Sometimes the addition of a suffix involves other changes in the form or
pronunciation of the word.
apply ➔ application
possible ➔ possibility
courage /ˈkʌrɪdʒ/ ➔ courageous /kəˈreɪdʒəs/

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Changes in pronunciation can involve both sounds and stress. For example,
when we add –ous to courage, the stress changes from the first to the second
syllable.

TIP
Not all combinations of words and suffixes are possible. For example, we
can add –ment to some verbs to form statement, amusement, punishment,
and so on. But we cannot add –ment to every verb. The possible
combinations have to be learned as individual words.

B Abstract nouns

Here are some ways that we can add a suffix to a verb or adjective to form a
noun – usually an abstract noun.

Verb ➔ noun ending in -ion

Verb + -ment

Verb + -ance/-ence

Verb + -ing
Adjective + -ness

Adjective in –ant/–ent
➔ noun in –ance/-ence

Adjective + -ty/-ity

correct ➔ correction,
discuss ➔ discussion
produce ➔ production,
describe ➔ description
inform ➔ information,
invite ➔ invitation
add ➔ addition,
repeat ➔ repetition
decide ➔ decision,
permit ➔ permission
development, government,
movement, payment
acceptance, performance;
existence, preference
a building, my feelings
blindness, forgetfulness, illness,
sadness
distant ➔ distance,
important ➔ importance
absent ➔ absence,
silent ➔ silence,
violent ➔ violence
certainty, royalty; nationality,
stupidity

C Driver, student, tourist, etc.

There are a number of endings that we use to express a person’s role.

Noun/Verb + -er/-or

Noun/Verb/Adjective + -ist

builder, driver, footballer, interviewer, lawyer, owner,
smoker, walker, writer > Note a
editor, navigator
journalist, motorist, nationalist, tourist

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Verb + -ant/-ent

Verb + -ee

Noun + -an/-ian

NOTE
a

assistant, informant, inhabitant, servant
correspondent, student
addressee, employee, interviewee, payee
> Note b
republican; historian, musician > Note c

We also use –er in many nouns referring to a device such as a tool or machine,
e.g. a computer, a food mixer, a heater, a screwdriver.

b The suffix –ee usually has a passive meaning. Compare –er and –ee.

The company is the biggest employer in the town. It has two thousand employees.

c Some adjectives of nationality end in –an/-ian, e.g. American, Brazilian. > 6B

D Friend, waitress, policeman/policewoman, etc

Most nouns for people can mean either a male or a female, so a friend, a student, a
doctor, a motorist, etc. can be either a man or a woman.
My friend has sold his car. (a male friend)
My friend has sold her car. (a female friend)

If we need to specify what sex, we add another word, e.g. her boyfriend, female
students, women doctors.

Some words for family members are different for males and females, e.g. husband/
wife, father/mother, son/daughter, brother/sister, uncle/aunt. But a cousin can be
male or female.

We can add the female suffix –ess to some nouns. A prince is male, and a princess is
female. Other examples are hostess and empress. But be careful not to over-use –ess.
Where there is a word that can refer to either sex, e.g. manager or poet, it is old-
fashioned and may be seen as sexist to use manageress or poetess. The only jobs
where –ess is still regularly used are actress and waitress, although actor can refer to
either a man or a woman.

There is also a male suffix -man /mən/ and a female suffix –woman, e.g.
businessman/businesswoman, chairman/chairwoman, policeman/policewoman,
salesman/saleswoman, spokesman/spokeswoman. But these are now often
regarded as sexist, and words that can refer to both males and females are
preferred. Sometimes we use the suffix –person, e.g. the chairperson, a salesperson.
Or we use a different word, e.g. a business executive, a police officer, a sales
representative.

NOTE
Some adjectives of nationality end in –man/-woman, e.g. Frenchman, Irishwoman. > 6B

E Verbs

There are many verbs in –ize formed from adjectives with an abstract meaning.
We can also add –en to some adjectives with a concrete meaning.

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Adjective + -ize
Adjective + -en

centralize, legalize, modernize, popularize, privatize
brighten, harden, loosen, sharpen, shorten, widen

NOTE
a The ending –ize can also be spelled –ise in British English: centralize/centralise.
b Some adjectives can be used as verbs, e.g. clear, empty.

F Adjectives

Noun + -al
Noun + -ic
Noun + -ful
Noun + -less
Noun + -ous
Noun + -y
Noun + -ly
Verb + -ive
Verb + -ing
Verb + -ed
Verb + -able/-ible

and carefully.

industrial, national, natural, original, traditional
artistic, energetic, heroic, photographic
careful, hopeful, peaceful, powerful, wonderful > Note a-b
careless, hopeless, powerless, useless, worthless > Note b
courageous, dangerous, famous, luxurious
greedy, healthy, salty, thirsty, wealthy
costly, cowardly, friendly, neighbourly > Note c
active, effective, exclusive, informative
amusing, exciting, surprising
amused, excited, surprised
acceptable, eatable, excusable, manageable > Note d
comprehensible, defensible

NOTE
a Nouns with the suffix –ful end in a single l, but the adverb has two. Compare careful

b -less is a negative suffix. Hopeless means ‘without hope’. Painful and painless
are opposites.

c Hourly, daily, weekly, and monthly can be adjectives or adverbs.

d The suffix –able/-ible often means that something can be done.
This sweater is washable. (= This sweater can be washed.)
But not all adjectives in –able/-ible have this meaning, e.g. pleasurable (= giving pleasure),

valuable (= worth a lot), formed from the nouns pleasure and value.

G Adverbs

Many adverbs are formed from an adjective + -ly, e.g. quick ➔ quickly.

4 Vowel and consonant changes

A Sometimes two related words have a different vowel sound.

We could feel the hot sun on our backs.
We could feel the heat of the sun on our backs.

Here hot is an adjective, and heat is a noun.

Other examples are blood ➔ bleed, food ➔ feed, full ➔ fill, lose ➔ loss,
proud ➔ pride, sell ➔ sale, shoot ➔ shot, sing ➔ song, sit ➔ seat.

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B Two related words can have a different consonant sound.

The explanation was hard to believe.
The explanation was beyond belief.
Here believe is a verb, and belief is a noun.

Other examples are advise ➔ advice, descend ➔ descent, prove ➔ proof,
speak ➔ speech.

C
Sometimes there is more than one sound change, e.g. choose ➔ choice,
lend ➔ loan, live /lɪv/ ➔ life /laɪf/, succeed ➔ success, think ➔ thought.

5 Words used in more than one way

A Many words can be both verbs and nouns.

Verb:

Noun:

We had to wait a long time.
How much will it cost?
Things are going to change around
here.

We had a long wait.
What about the cost?
I’m going to make some changes.

Here are some common words of this kind.

aid
answer
attack
attempt
call
cause
change

claim
control
cost
cut
deal
demand
design

drive
experience
fall
fear
fight
form
help

hit
hope
look
love
market
need
offer

plan
report
run
sound
start
stay
stop

support
talk
test
vote
wait
walk

B Sometimes a noun differs from a verb in where the stress goes. Usually the verb is

stressed on the second syllable and the noun on the first.

Verb

Noun

The goods are expensive to transport. What transport do you use?
/trænˈspɔ:t/

/ˈtrænspɔ:t/

How is your research progressing?
/prɘˈgresɪɲ/

Are you making progress?
/ˈprɘʊgres/

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The change of stress can make a difference to a vowel sound such as in the
first syllable of progress, which is /prə/ when unstressed and /prəʊ/ when
stressed.

Here are some words that are stressed differently as a verb and as a noun.

conduct
conflict
discount

export
import
increase protest

produce
progress

rebel
record
reject

suspect
transfer
transport

C Some concrete nouns can also be verbs.

If you could butter the bread, it would be a help. (= put butter on)
The waste was illegally shipped across the Channel. (= taken by ship)
We aim to break into the UK bottled water market. (= put into bottles)

Here are some other verbs formed in this way.

brake (= apply the brake, slow down)
finger (= touch or feel with your
fingers)
fish (= to try to catch fish)
glue (= to stick with glue)
gun down (= shoot and kill or
injure)
hammer a nail in

hand someone their key
mail (= to send by post or by
e-mail)
parcel up a present
ski down a slope
(tele)phone a friend
wallpaper a room
water the plants

NOTE
Some of these verbs can also have less literal meanings.

The team got absolutely hammered. (= badly beaten in a game)

D Some adjectives can also be verbs.

The paint will soon dry. (= become dry)
They’re going to free the prisoners. (= set free)

Some words of this kind are blind, calm, clear, cool, dry, empty, free, narrow, slow,
smooth, warm, wet.

NOTE
Some adjectives with similar meanings are equivalent to verbs with –en, e.g. widen.

6 Nationality words

A

We form nationality words from the name of a country, e.g. Italy ➔ Italian,
France ➔ French, Japan ➔ Japanese. We can do the same with continents
and regions, e.g. Africa ➔ African, Texas ➔ Texan.

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