History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

 

 

History and Use of Per- and
Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

1 Introduction
The unique physical and chemical properties of per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances (PFAS) impart oil and water repellency, temperature resistance,
and friction reduction to a wide range of products used by consumers
and industry. For example, PFAS, have been used in coatings for textiles,
paper products, and cookware and to formulate some firefighting foams,
and have a range of applications in the aerospace, photographic imaging,
semiconductor, automotive, construction, electronics, and aviation
industries (KEMI 2015; USEPA 2017b). USEPA has compiled a web-based
resource for PFAS information. The information includes topics such as
Policy and Guidance, Chemistry and Behavior, Occurrence, Toxicology, Site
Characterization and Remediation Technologies (USEPA 2017h).

The scientific community is rapidly recognizing and evolving its
understanding of the environmental and health impacts associated with
the release of PFAS. Certain PFAS, most notably some of the perfluoroalkyl
acids (PFAAs), such as perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctane
sulfonate (PFOS), are mobile, persistent, and bioaccumulative, and are not
known to degrade in the environment (USEPA 2003b; ATSDR 2015; NTP
2016; Concawe 2016).

Understanding the manufacturing history of PFAS, as well as past and
current uses, allows for the identification of potential environmental sources
of PFAS, possible release mechanisms, and associated pathway-receptor
relationships.

ITRC has developed a series of fact
sheets to summarize the latest science
and emerging technologies regarding
PFAS. The purpose of this fact sheet
is to:

• provide an overview of the discovery
and development of PFAS and the
subsequent detection of PFAS in the
environment

• describe emerging concerns of
potential adverse human health
effects, and efforts to reduce use or
replace with alternate formulations, or
both

• identify the major sources of PFAS
in the environment, as well as other
sources of PFAS to the environment
that may be of interest

For further information, please see
the ITRC Technical and Regulatory
Guidance Document for PFAS dated
April 2020.

2 Discovery and Manufacturing History
PFAS are a complex family of manmade fluorinated organic chemicals (Wang et al. 2017) that have been produced since
the mid-20th century. It has been estimated that the PFAS family may include approximately 5,000 to 10,000 chemicals
(USEPA 2018i), with a recent inventory identifying more than 4,700 PFAS that could have been, or may be, on the global
market (OECD 2018), and the uses of each of these PFAS may not be known (KEMI 2015a). Table 2-1 provides a general
timeline of initial synthesis and commercial production of some of the more well-known PFAS, along with some of the
more frequently associated products.

PFAS are produced using several different processes. Two major processes have been used to manufacture
fluorosurfactants (includes PFAAs) and side-chain fluorinated polymers: electrochemical fluorination (ECF) and
telomerization (KEMI 2015). ECF was licensed by 3M in the 1940s (Banks, Smart, and Tatlow 1994). 3M has ceased
using ECF to make certain long-chain PFAS but continues to use ECF to manufacture other, shorter chain PFAS (Buck et
al. 2011). ECF produces a mixture of even- and odd- numbered carbon chain lengths of approximately 70% linear and
30% branched substances (Concawe 2016). Fluorotelomerization was developed in the 1970s (Benskin 2011), and yields
mainly even numbered, straight carbon chain isomers (Kissa 2001; Parsons et al. 2008).

1

Table 2-1. Discovery and manufacturing history of select PFAS

PFAS1

Development Time Period

PTFE

Invented Non-Stick

1930s

1940s

1950s

1960s

1970s

1980s

1990s

2000s

PFOS

PFOA

PFNA

Fluoro-
telomers

Dominant
Process3

Waterproof
Fabrics

Coatings

Initial
Production

Firefighting
foam

Stain &
Water
Resistant
Products

Initial
Production

Protective
Coatings

Initial
Production

Initial
Production

Architectural Resins

Firefighting Foams

Electrochemical Fluorination (ECF)

U.S. Reduction
of PFOS, PFOA,
PFNA (and other
select PFAS2)

Predominant form
of firefighting foam

Fluoro-
telomerization
(shorter chain ECF)

Pre-Invention of Chemistry /

Initial Chemical Synthesis /
Production

Commercial Products Introduced
and Used

Notes:
1. This table includes fluoropolymers, PFAAs, and fluorotelomers. PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) is a fluoropolymer.
PFOS, PFOA, and PFNA (perfluorononanoic acid) are PFAAs.
2. Refer to Section 3.4.
3. The dominant manufacturing process is shown in the table; note, however, that ECF and fluorotelomerization have
both been, and continue to be, used for the production of select PFAS.

Sources: Prevedouros et al. 2006; Concawe 2016; Chemours 2017; Gore-Tex 2017; US Naval Research Academy 2017

3 Health and Environmental Investigations
3.1 Initial Studies
Studies that found some PFAS in the blood of occupationally exposed workers in the 1970s and reported detections in
the blood of the general human population in the 1990s (Buck et al. 2011) led to increased awareness of PFAAs in the
environment, associated human exposure, and the potential for health effects. PFAAs (such as PFOS and PFOA) are
found in the blood and serum of most people whether exposed in the workplace or not. This is attributed to widespread
use, ability to bind to blood proteins and long half-lives in humans (Kannan et al. 2004; Karrman et al. 2006; Olsen et al.
2003). Laboratory studies using animals and epidemiological studies of human populations show that exposure to some
PFAS may be associated with a wide range of adverse human health effects (USEPA 2016b, c; ATSDR 2017).

Although some PFAS have been manufactured for more than 50 years, PFAS were not widely documented in
environmental samples until the early 2000s. Early detection at low reporting limits was hindered due to analytical
capability challenges arising from the unique surface-active properties of PFAS (Giesy and Kannan 2001; 3M 2000).
Many manuscripts have since been published showing widespread distribution of certain PFAS, such as PFAAs, in
various matrices including sediments, surface and groundwater, wildlife, and human blood (whole, plasma, and serum)
(Kannan et al. 2004; Yamashita et al. 2005; Higgins et al. 2005; Rankin et al. 2016). Some PFAS (such as PFAAs) are
found in many places throughout the globe, even in areas well beyond where they were initially used or manufactured
(Houde et al. 2011).

3.2 Emerging Awareness
The awareness and emphasis on various PFAS have evolved. Early focus was on the longer-chain (see Section 3.4),
perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). In 2016, USEPA issued a Lifetime Health Advisory (LHA) for two of the most widely detected
PFAAs, PFOA and PFOS. Set at 70 nanograms per liter (ng/L, equivalent to parts per trillion [ppt]), the LHA applies for
each PFAA, as well as in combination, in drinking water (USEPA 2016d).

2

History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued Six additional PFAAs have recently gained attention after their inclusion in the USEPA Unregulated Contaminant
Monitoring Rule (UCMR). The third round of monitoring, or UCMR3, was promulgated in 2012 for tracking chemicals
suspected to be present in drinking water, but do not have health-based standards set by the Safe Drinking Water Act. A
summary of the occurrence data is included in the Regulations, Guidance, and Advisories Fact Sheet.

Many state regulatory agencies now request or require testing for an expanded list of long- and short-chain PFAAs,
and some potential precursors to PFAAs, such as fluorotelomers. Other polyfluoroalkyl substances are also receiving
increased attention, as illustrated in Figure 3-1.

Figure 2-14

3
R
M
C
U

l

s
e
t
y
a
n
A

n
o
m
m
o
C

S
A
F
P

l
l

A

Initial Attention

PFOS PFOA

PFHxS
PFBS

PFDS
PFNS
PFHpS
PFPeS

s
e
t
a
n
o
f
l
u
S

C
a
r
b
o
x
y

l

a
t
e
s

PFNA
PFHpA

PFTeDA, PFTrDA,
PFDoA, PFUnA,
PFDA, PFHxA,
PFPeA, PFBA

Early Attention

Fluorotelomers, Perfluoroethers, Perfluoropolyethers

Recent Attention

All other PFAS

Increasing Attention

Thematic and not proportional. Bottom of triangle indicates additional number of compounds;
not a greater quantity by mass, concentration, or frequency of detection.

Figure 3-1. Emerging awareness and emphasis on PFAS occurrence in the environment
(Source: J. Hale, Kleinfelder, used with permission)

3.3 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a United Nations treaty signed in 2001 aimed
at reducing or eliminating the production, use, and release of key POPs. POPs are defined as synthetic, organic
compounds that, to varying degrees, resist photolytic, biological, and chemical degradation (KEMI 2004 and 2005;
USEPA 2017k).

In 2009, Annex B of the Stockholm Convention was amended to include PFOS, because it is persistent in the
environment and is not known to degrade at any environmental condition. At this time, the U.S. has not ratified the
amendment (KEMI 2017). According to the Stockholm Convention website, further amendments approved in 2019
included discontinuing several of the previously allowed ongoing uses of PFOS, as well as prohibiting and/or eliminating
the production and use of PFOA and related compounds (with certain exemptions). Further, the POPs Review Committee
recommended to list PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid) without specific exemptions.

3.4 Phase-out of Long-Chain PFAS
Due to industry and regulatory concerns about the potential health and environmental impacts, there has been a
reduction in the manufacture and use of long-chain PFAAs. Long-chain PFAAs include perfluorinated carboxylates
(PFCAs) with eight or more fully fluorinated carbons (for example, PFOA) and perfluorinated sulfonates (PFSAs) with
six or more fully fluorinated carbons (for example, PFHxS and PFOS), their salts, and precursor compounds capable of

3

History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued forming long-chain PFAAs (USEPA 2009a; Buck et al. 2011; OECD 2013; Wang et al. 2015).

• In May 2000, 3M, the principal worldwide manufacturer and sole U.S. manufacturer of PFOS, announced a voluntary

phase-out of perfluorooctanyl chemistries, which included PFOS, PFHxS, PFOA, and related precursors. 3M reportedly
completed most of the phase-out by the end of 2002, with the remaining phase-out completed by 2008 (USEPA 2003b;
USEPA 2017e; 3M 2017b).

• USEPA issued four Significant New Use Rules (SNURs) under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) between 2002
and 2013 to require notification to USEPA before any manufacture, use and/or import of 271 chemically-related PFAS,
which include, but are not limited to, 88 of the PFOS-related chemicals phased-out by 3M. However, the SNURs
allowed for continued, low-volume use of some of these PFAS in the photographic/imaging, semiconductor, etching,
metal plating, and aviation industries. Also, due to the long shelf-life of PFOS-based fire-fighting foams, they may still
be stored and in use at various facilities (see Section 4.2 and the AFFF Fact Sheet) (USEPA 2007). SNURs for some
long-chain PFCAs and PFSAs have been proposed (USEPA 2015b).

• In January 2006, USEPA initiated the PFOA Stewardship Program (USEPA 2006b). The eight major manufacturing
companies committed to reducing PFOA, other longer-chain PFCAs (such as perfluorononanoic acid [PFNA] and
perfluorodecanoic acid [PFDA]), and related precursors (for example, 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol [FTOH]) that could
be converted to these PFCAs from their global facility emissions and product content. USEPA indicates all eight
companies successfully satisfied the program goals, meeting a 95% reduction by 2010, and elimination by 2015
(USEPA 2017e). Even though the program goals were met, materials imported to the United States may contain these
PFCAs and related precursors.

PFAS are manufactured globally. Recently increased production of PFOA and related PFAS in China, India, and Russia
have potentially offset the global reduction anticipated with the U.S. phase-out (OECD 2015b). PFAS manufacture began
in China in the 1980s (World Bank 2017a, b), and PFOS production in China increased with the long-chain PFAA phase-
out in the United States (Concawe 2016). In 2016, PFOS and its derivatives were still being produced in Germany, Italy,
and China (Witteveen+Bos and TTE 2016), but by early 2017, China was the only known producer of PFOS. China has
ratified the Stockholm Convention on POPs and a grant from Global Environment Facility (GEF) was approved in 2017 to
support the reduction of PFOS in China (World Bank 2017a).

3.5 Replacement Chemistry
Manufacturers have been developing replacement technologies, including reformulating or substituting longer-
chain substances with nonfluorinated chemicals, alternate technologies, or shorter-chain perfluoroalkyl or
polyfluorinated substances. Some alternate PFAS include, but are not limited to, compounds produced with ECF
and fluorotelomerization, such as: FTOH, perfluorobutane sulfonyl fluoride (PBSF)-based derivatives (for example,
perfluorobutane sulfonate [PFBS] in lieu of PFOS), per- and polyfluoroalkylethers (for example, GenX and ADONA used
in the manufacture of fluoropolymers) and other types of PFAS (Hori et al. 2006; OECD 2007; Herzke, Olson, and Posner
2012; Wang et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2015; Holmquist et al. 2016).

Many long-chain PFAS alternatives are structurally similar to their predecessors and manufactured by the same
companies (Concawe 2016; Wang et al. 2015). Some of the replacement chemicals are said to achieve the same
performance effectiveness of some of their predecessors; however, it is not yet clear if this is true for all replacement
PFAS. For example, a 2015 study concluded that there are no non-fluorinated alternatives that provide equivalent
technical performance in textiles (Danish EPA 2015).

Several studies suggest some of the replacement PFAS may or may not be less hazardous than the long-chain
predecessors, although publicly available information on most replacement chemicals is limited (Wang et al. 2015; RIVM
2016). Documentation regarding the USEPA’s review of hundreds of “shorter chain-length PFAS telomeric” substitutes
for long-chain PFAS is available under the TSCA New Chemicals Program (OECD 2013; USEPA 2017g). Other
documentation regarding some replacement chemistries is available from the FluoroCouncil (2017).

Information on environmental contamination by replacement PFAS is limited, and most are not detected by standard
analytical methods (Wang et al. 2013). Treatment processes used to remove these chemicals from waste streams may
not be as effective as with longer-chain PFAS (Sun et al. 2016).

4

History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued 4 Major Sources of PFAS in the Environment
PFAS are used in many industrial and consumer applications. Major sources may have released PFAS into the
environment and impacted drinking water supplies in many areas of the United States (Environmental Working Group
and Northeastern University Social Science Environmental Health Research Institute 2017).

4.1 Production and Manufacturing Facilities
Both in the United States and abroad, primary manufacturing facilities produce PFAS and secondary manufacturing
facilities use PFAS to produce goods. Due to the solubility and persistence of many PFAS, environmental release
mechanisms associated with these facilities include air emission and dispersion, spills, and disposal of manufacturing
wastes and wastewater. Potential impacts to air, soil, surface water, stormwater, and groundwater are present not
only at release areas but potentially over the surrounding area (Shin et al. 2011). Table 4-1 provides a general (not
exhaustive) summary of potential major sources for PFAS releases to the environment based on the manufacturing
sector. Manufacturing of commercial products and consumer goods summarized in Section 5 may also be environmental
sources but are not included in this table.

Table 4-1. Potential major manufacturing sources of PFAS releases to the environment

Sector

Textiles & Leather

Example Uses

References

Factory- or consumer-applied coating to repel
water, oil, and stains. Applications include
protective clothing and outerwear, umbrellas,
tents, sails, architectural materials, carpets,
and upholstery.

Paper Products

Metal Plating & Etching

Surface coatings to repel grease and moisture.
Uses include non-food paper packaging
(for example, cardboard, carbonless forms,
masking papers) and food-contact materials
(for example, pizza boxes, fast food wrappers,
microwave popcorn bags, baking papers, pet
food bags).

Corrosion prevention, mechanical wear
reduction, aesthetic enhancement, surfactant,
wetting agent/fume suppressant for chrome,
copper, nickel and tin electroplating, and post-
plating cleaner.

Wire Manufacturing

Coating and insulation.

Industrial Surfactants,
Resins, Molds, Plastics

Manufacture of plastics and fluoropolymers,
rubber, and compression mold release
coatings; plumbing fluxing agents;
fluoroplastic coatings, composite resins, and
flame retardant for polycarbonate.

Rao and Baker 1994; Hekster, Laane,
and de Voogt 2003; Brooke, Footitt,
and Nwaogu 2004; Poulsen et al. 2005;
Prevedouros et al. 2006; Walters and
Santillo 2006; Trudel et al. 2008; Guo et
al. 2009; USEPA 2009a; Ahrens 2011;
Buck et al. 2011; UNEP 2011; Herzke,
Olsson, and Posner 2012; Patagonia
2015; Kotthoff et al. 2015; ATSDR 2015

Rao and Baker 1994; Kissa 2001;
Hekster, Laane, and de Voogt 2003;
Poulsen et al. 2005; Trudel et al. 2008;
Buck et al. 2011; UNEP 2011; Kotthoff
et al. 2015; Schaider et al. 2017

USEPA 1996; USEPA 1998; Kissa 2001;
Prevedouros et al. 2006; USEPA 2009b;
UNEP 2011; OSHA 2013; KEMI 2015;
Danish EPA 2015

Kissa 2001; van der Putte et al. 2010;
ASTSWMO 2015

Kissa 2001; Renner 2001; Poulsen
et al. 2005; Fricke and Lahl 2005;
Prevedouros et al. 2006; Skutlarek,
Exner, and Farber 2006; van der Putte
et al. 2010; Buck et al. 2011; Herzke,
Olsson, and Posner 2012; Kotthoff et al.
2015; Miteni 2016; Chemours 2017

Photolithography,
Semiconductor Industry

Photoresists, top anti-reflective coatings,
bottom anti-reflective coatings, and etchants,
with other uses including surfactants, wetting
agents, and photo-acid generation.

SIA 2008; Choi et al. 2005; Rolland et
al. 2004; Brooke, Footitt, and Nwaogu
2004; van der Putte et al. 2010; UNEP
2011; Herzke, Olsson, and Posner 2012

5

History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued 4.2 Class B Fluorine-Containing Firefighting Foams
Class B fluorine-containing firefighting foams (firefighting foam) for extinguishing flammable liquid fires include aqueous
film forming foam (AFFF), fluoroprotein (FP), and film forming fluoroprotein foam (FFFP) (Concawe 2016). These foams
have been stored and used for fire suppression, fire training, and flammable vapor suppression at hundreds of military
installations and civilian airports (Hu et al. 2016), as well as at petroleum refineries and storage facilities, and chemical
manufacturing plants throughout the United States. Additionally, local fire departments in communities have used
and maintained quantities of firefighting foam in their inventories. Despite the phase-out of longer-chain PFAAs, these
products still have long-chain PFAA constituents in firefighting foam due to the long shelf-life of these products. Facilities
that manufactured firefighting foams are also potential sources.

Firefighting foams are a complex mixture of both known and unidentified PFAS of differing molecular structures present
in varying proportions. Foams were produced to meet firefighting specifications, rather than formulated to contain a
specified mixture of PFAS. These types of firefighting foams have been in use since the 1960s. The United States Naval
Research Laboratory began research on the development of firefighting foams in the 1960s, which led to advancements
in performance and increased safety (U.S. Naval Research Laboratory 2017). Fluorotelomer foams have been in use
since the 1970s and became the predominant foam after 2001 when long-chain ECF-based foams were discontinued.

Firefighting foams are released into the environment through a variety of practices and mechanisms (Anderson et al.
2016; Hale 2016):

• low volume releases of foam concentrate during storage, transfer or equipment calibration

• moderate volume discharge of foam solution for apparatus testing

• occasional, high-volume, broadcast discharge of foam solution for firefighting and fire suppression/prevention

• periodic, high volume, broadcast discharge for fire training

• leaks from foam distribution piping between storage and pumping locations

Firefighting foam is applied by mixing foam concentrate and water to make foam solution. When applied to a fire, the
foam solution is aerated at the nozzle, yielding finished foam. Thousands of gallons of foam solution may be applied
during a given event. Figure 4-1 illustrates the use of firefighting foam, how it may be released to the environment, and
potentially affected media.

Figure 4-1. Release of firefighting foam
(Source: Adapted from figure by J. Hale, Kleinfelder, used with permission)

6

History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued The U.S. Department of Defense (USDOD) has undertaken an evaluation of potential firefighting foam contamination at
its facilities nationwide (Anderson et al. 2016). Similar efforts have been undertaken by some states. For example, the
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) conducted a state-wide survey of firefighting foam use at training sites.
Working with the State Fire Chief Association, the MPCA identified more than two dozen locations where Class B foams
were likely used in firefighting training (Antea Group 2011). For further information, refer to the AFFF Fact Sheet.

4.3 Waste Disposal
Disposal of wastes generated during primary PFAS production and secondary manufacturing using PFAS can be sources
of PFAS environmental contamination. As PFAS manufacturing processes change with time, the resulting type and
composition of waste streams also change. Given that PFAS production and use began several decades before the
enactment of federal and state regulations governing waste disposal (for example, Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act [RCRA] in 1976 [USEPA 2017d]), environmental impacts, including impacted drinking water supplies, from disposal
of legacy PFAS industrial waste have been documented (Shin et al. 2011; MPCA 2017).

Leachate from some municipal solid waste landfills has been shown to be a source of PFAS release to the environment,
with the presence of some PFAS reportedly due to the disposal of consumer goods treated with hydrophobic, stain-
resistant coatings (Busch et al. 2010; Eggen, Moeder, and Arukwe 2010). PFAS composition and concentration in
leachates vary depending on waste age, climate, and waste composition (Allred et al. 2015; Lang et al. 2017).

The evolution of waste reduction and landfill technology has provided significant protection to human health and the
environment (Hickman 1999). Leachate collection systems are essential to providing systematic transport of leachate
to a central location for recirculation, treatment, or offsite treatment (Arabi and Lugowski 2015). Leachate treatment by
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is common prior to discharge to surface water, or distribution for agricultural or
commercial use (Lang 2016). Standard WWTP technologies may do little to reduce or remove PFAS and discharge of
landfill leachate treated at WWTPs represents a secondary source of certain PFAS release to the environment (Ahrens et
al. 2015; CRC Care 2017).

4.4 Wastewater Treatment
Consumer and industrial use of PFAS-containing materials, including disposal of landfill leachate and firefighting foam,
results in the discharge of PFAS to WWTPs. WWTPs, particularly those that receive industrial wastewater, are possible
sources of PFAS release. (Lin, Panchangam, and Lo 2009; Ahrens et al. 2009).

4.4.1 WWTP Operations
Conventional sewage treatment methods do not efficiently remove PFAAs (Ahrens et al. 2011; Schultz et al. 2006).
Evaluation of full-scale WWTPs has indicated that conventional primary (sedimentation and clarification) and secondary
(aerobic biodegradation of organic matter) treatment processes, can result in changes in PFAS concentrations and
groups (for example, an increase in the concentrations of PFAAs in effluent, presumably from degradation of precursor
PFAS) (Schultz et al. 2006).

Some PFAS are frequently detected in WWTP effluent (for example, PFOA and PFBS), with concentrations of some PFAS
ranging up to hundreds of ng/L; effluents are believed to be major point sources of these chemicals in surface water
(Ahrens 2011). Hu et al. (2016) demonstrated that the presence of WWTPs in an area was predictive of the presence of
PFOS and PFOA in drinking water. PFOS and PFOA are two of the most frequently detected PFAS in wastewater. (Hamid
and Li 2016). Using WWTP effluent-impacted surface water as a source of tap water can, in turn, recycle the PFAS back
to the WWTP, recirculating PFAS in the water cycle (Hamid and Li 2016).

At some WWTPs, studies have shown concentrations of PFAS in ambient air to be 1.5 to 15 times greater than
background reference sites (Ahrens et al. 2011). PFAS distribution (primarily PFAAs and FTOH, with higher
concentrations of FTOH) changes based on the specific PFAS sources in the effluent and the type of treatment methods
employed at the WWTP. Lagoon systems contain a greater fraction of PFAAs.

4.4.2 Biosolids
PFAS (measured as PFCAs and PFSAs) have been found in domestic sewage sludge (Higgins et al. 2005). USEPA states
that more than half of the sludge produced in the United States is applied to agricultural land as biosolids, therefore
biosolids application can be a source of PFAS to the environment (USEPA 2017n). The most abundant PFAS found
in biosolids (PFOS and PFOA) are the same as in WWTP effluent; however, biosolids may also contain other long-
chain PFAS (Hamid and Li 2016). Application of biosolids as a soil amendment can result in a transfer of PFAS to soil

7

History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued (Sepulvado et al. 2011). These PFAS can then be available for uptake by plants and soil organisms. There are indications
that PFAAs can enter the food chain through the use of biosolids-amended soil (Lindstrom et al. 2011; Blaine et al. 2013;
Blaine et al. 2014; Navarro et al. 2017). Further studies show that PFAS concentrations can be elevated in surface and
groundwater in the vicinity of agricultural fields that received PFAS contaminated biosolids from an industrial source for
an extended period of time (Washington et al. 2010).

5 Other Potential Sources of PFAS – Use of Commercial and Consumer
Products
PFAS are widely used in consumer products and household applications,
with a diverse mixture of PFAS found in daily use in varying concentrations
(Clara et al. 2008; Trier, Granby, and Christensen 2011; Fujii, Harada, and
Koizumi 2013; OECD 2013; ATSDR 2015; Kotthoff et al. 2015; KEMI 2015;
USEPA 2016b, c).

Commercial and Consumer
Products Containing PFAS:

Environmental releases associated with the use of commercial and
consumer products are primarily related to management of solid waste (for
example, disposal of used items in a municipal solid waste [MSW] landfill),
and wastewater disposal (for example, discharge to WWTPs, private septic
systems, or other subsurface disposal systems), and may be associated
with releases during manufacturing of these products.

As increased environmental sampling for PFAS occurs, it is likely that
additional sources may emerge. Studies have shown that physical
degradation of some consumer products (such as PFAS-treated paper,
textiles, and carpets) may be a source of PFAS in house dust (Bjorklund,
Thuresson, and de Wit 2009). Additionally, studies have also shown that
professional ski wax technicians may have significant inhalation exposures
to PFAS (Nilsson et al. 2013) and snowmelt and surface waters near ski
areas may have measurable PFAS impacts (Kwok et al. 2013).

6 References and Acronyms
The references cited in this fact sheet, and the other ITRC PFAS fact
sheets, are included in one combined list that is available on the ITRC web
site. The combined acronyms list is also available on the ITRC web site.

• paper and packaging
• clothing and carpets
• outdoor textiles and sporting

equipment

• ski and snowboard waxes
• non-stick cookware
• cleaning agents and fabric softeners
• polishes and waxes, and latex paints
• pesticides and herbicides
• hydraulic fluids
• windshield wipers
• paints, varnishes, dyes, and inks
• adhesives
• medical products
• personal care products (for example,

shampoo, hair conditioners,
sunscreen, cosmetics, toothpaste,
dental floss)

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Team Contacts

Robert Mueller • New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection
609-984-3910 • Bob.Mueller@dep.nj.gov

Virginia Yingling • Minnesota Department of Health
651-343-2890 • virginia.yingling@state.mn.us

April 2020

ITRC
1250 H St. NW, Suite 850
Washington, DC 20005
itrcweb.org

ITRC Disclaimer

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History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) continued