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Open in new tab The Elements of Style
Strunk, W., Jr. and White, E.B.
CONTENTS
I.
II.
INTRODUCTORY……………………………………………………………………………………..
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ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE……………………………………………………………
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with ‘s…………………………………………
In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma
2.
after each term except the last………………………………………………………………..
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas……………………………………
4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause…………..
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma. …………………………………………
6. Do not break sentences in two. ……………………………………………………………..
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the
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grammatical subject……………………………………………………………………………..
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8. Divide words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation and
pronunciation……………………………………………………………………………………..
a. Divide the word according to its formation: ………………………………………
b. Divide “on the vowel:” …………………………………………………………………..
c. Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the
simple form of the word:………………………………………………………………..
III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION……………………………………..
9. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic……
10. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence ……………………………….
11. Use the active voice. The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous
than the passive:………………………………………………………………………………..
12. Put statements in positive form. …………………………………………………………..
13. Omit needless words………………………………………………………………………….
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences………………………………………………….
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form……………………………………………..
16. Keep related words together………………………………………………………………..
In summaries, keep to one tense…………………………………………………………..
17.
18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end…………………………………..
IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM ………………………………………………………………….
V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED………………………….
VI. WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED……………………………………………………………….
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I .
INTRODUCTORY
This book is intended for use in English courses in which the practice of
composition is combined with the study of literature. It aims to give in brief space
the principal requirements of plain English style. It aims to lighten the task of
instructor and student by concentrating attention (in Chapters II and III) on a few
essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly
violated. The numbers of the sections may be used as references in correcting
manuscript.
The book covers only a small portion of the field of English style, but the
experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials, students profit most
by individual instruction based on the problems of their own work, and that each
instructor has his own body of theory, which he prefers to that offered by any
textbook.
The writer’s colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell University have
greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript. Mr. George McLane Wood
has kindly consented to the inclusion under Rule 11 of some material from his
Suggestions to Authors.
The following books are recommended for reference or further study: in connection
with Chapters II and IV, F. Howard Collins, Author and Printer (Henry Frowde);
Chicago University Press, Manual of Style; T. L. De Vinne Correct Composition
(The Century Company); Horace Hart, Rules for Compositors and Printers (Oxford
University Press); George McLane Wood, Extracts from the Style-Book of the
Government Printing Office (United States Geological Survey); in connection with
Chapters III and V, Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, The Art of Writing (Putnams),
especially the chapter, Interlude on Jargon; George McLane Wood, Suggestions to
Authors (United States Geological Survey); John Leslie Hall, English Usage (Scott,
Foresman and Co.); James P. Kelly, Workmanship in Words (Little, Brown and
Co.)
It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of
rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will usually find in the sentence
some compensating merit, attained at the cost of the violation. Unless he is certain of
doing as well, he will probably do best to follow the rules. After he has learned, by
their guidance, to write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him look, for
the secrets of style, to the study of the masters of literature.
II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
1.
Form the possessive singular of nouns with ‘s.
Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,
Charles’s friend
Burns’s poems
the witch’s malice
This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the
Oxford University Press.
Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names in -es and -is, the
possessive Jesus’, and such forms as for conscience’ sake, for righteousness’ sake.
But such forms as Achilles’ heel, Moses’ laws, Isis’ temple are commonly replaced
by
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the heel of Achilles
the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and oneself have no apostrophe.
2.
In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term
except the last.
Thus write,
red, white, and blue
honest, energetic, but headstrong
He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its
contents.
This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the Oxford
University Press.
In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as
Brown, Shipley and Company
The abbreviation etc., even if only a single term comes before it, is always preceded
by a comma.
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for
time, is to travel on foot.
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word,
such as however, or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the
flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But
whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma
and leave the other. Such punctuation as
or
Marjorie’s husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit
yesterday,
My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect
health, is indefensible.
Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with this rule, set off by commas.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became
more and more interested.
Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly punctuated.
In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but
recently been acquired by France.
Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.
In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are non-
restrictive; they do not limit the application of the words on which they depend, but
add, parenthetically, statements supplementing those in the principal clauses. Each
sentence is a combination of two statements which might have been made
independently.
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The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more
and more interested.
Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but
recently been acquired by France.
Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at
Nether Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles from
Bridgewater.
Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.
The candidate who best meets these requirements will
obtain the place.
In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application of the word candidate to a
single person. Unlike those above, the sentence cannot be split into two independent
statements.
The abbreviations etc. and jr. are always preceded by a comma, and except at the end
of a sentence, followed by one.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is
the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following
the main clause of a sentence. The sentences quoted in this section and under Rules
4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18 should afford sufficient guidance.
If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma
before the conjunction, not after it.
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his
treachery, greeted us with a smile.
4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause.
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the
story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. The
situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of
rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the second
clause has the appearance of an after-thought. Further, and, is the least specific of
connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation
exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation
is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story
of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. Although
the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city,
the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of
escape.
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic,
and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and
gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first
quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to
construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).
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Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in the sense
of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of and at the same time) likewise
require a comma before the conjunction.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma,
precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act
promptly, there is still one chance of escape.
For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the next section.
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.
If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are
to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
Stevenson’s romances are entertaining; they are full of
exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before
dark.
It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the
semicolons by periods.
Stevenson’s romances are entertaining. They are full of
exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before
dark.
If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).
Stevenson’s romances are entertaining, for they are full of
exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before
dark.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly,
besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still
required.
I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in
finding my way about.
In general, however, it is best, in writing, to avoid using so in this manner; there is
danger that the writer who uses it at all may use it too often. A simple correction,
usually serviceable, is to omit the word so, and begin the first clause with as:
As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in
finding my way about.
If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:
Man proposes, God disposes.
The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was
drawn up.
6. Do not break sentences in two.
In other words, do not use periods for commas.
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